Tracing God's Providence: After the Fall of the Berlin Wall - Day 2

So, after the First World War, as you know, there were the Allies and what others called the Axis. There was the Conference of Versailles, which was supposed to be a peace conference involving America, France, Britain, Germany, and Austria. However, German delegates were not allowed to participate; they were simply handed the conclusions of the victors. When you win a war, you reorganise things, and the victors of the First World War decided what to do with the empires and countries they defeated. This was particularly under the inspiration of Woodrow Wilson, who hated the idea of empire, including the British Empire, and wanted to dismantle these empires within Europe. Thus, the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the German Empire, and the Russian Empire were all dismantled, although the victorious nations kept and expanded their own empires. For example, Tanganyika was transferred to become part of the British Empire, and France and Japan also retained their colonies. Many of the problems we see in the world today are a result of how these empires were dismantled and the lines drawn to break them up into different parts.

We looked at the Ottoman Empire, which we discussed yesterday, including the whole of the Middle East. As a legacy of that, we have various problems, such as Kurdistan, which is a large nation that has not achieved statehood. The Conference of Versailles did not represent them, and there are ongoing issues with Iraq. Kurdistan straddles Iraq and Turkey, and I believe parts of Iran as well. Another consequence of the breakup of the Ottoman Empire is the situation in Israel, Palestine, and Jordan. We need to look at these issues, including Syria and Lebanon, and the way these lines were drawn. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was also broken up, leading to the Balkan problems we still face today, including the issues in Yugoslavia and Eastern Europe, where ethnic cleansing occurred throughout the 20th century.

The Russian Empire was broken up into republics within the Soviet Union. Russia withdrew from the war in 1917 after the Bolsheviks took power, which led to the shrinking of the Russian Empire. The Russian Empire was divided into different republics within the Soviet Union. We will examine how this happened in contrast to the division of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, changed significantly, and by the beginning of the First World War, it included regions that became Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, and Kuwait. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was similarly broken up into new countries, such as Czechoslovakia, with parts going to Poland. The Russian Empire was also divided into parts, each becoming a Soviet republic. These new states had never existed before, as they were part of the Russian Empire.

God's providence is towards the breakup of empires. The whole biblical tradition critiques imperialism, which involves one person or nation ruling over others and attempting to destroy their culture and language. This critique is evident in the story of the Tower of Babel and the prophetic critiques against empires throughout the Bible. We also looked at the Divine Principle, which discusses how every nation became independent after the Second World War, leading to the formation of the United Nations as a brotherhood of nations. The principle envisions peace between nations, with every nation having equal value and living in peace with each other. There are passages in the Bible and the Divine Principle that discuss the vision of world government, but I personally believe that the vision in the biblical tradition is much better than the idea of a world government, which our movement does not seem to promote anymore.

One of the biggest problems people often discuss today is the issue of Israel and Palestine. To understand the background, we need to go back to Abraham. When God called Abraham, He made a covenant with him, stating that he would be the father of many nations. God promised to establish a covenant between Himself, Abraham, and his descendants forever. This eternal covenant, made 4,000 years ago, is remarkable because the promises made to Abraham are being realised today. Part of this promise included giving Abraham and his descendants all the land of Canaan as an everlasting possession, with God stating that He would be their God. Some may question the relevance of this promise from a political philosophy perspective, arguing that it is irrelevant for ownership of land. However, from a theological perspective, God, as the creator of the universe, has the authority to allocate land to different peoples.

The authority to give the land to Abraham and his descendants is significant, but it is also conditional. During the time of Moses, God established the Mosaic Law, stating that the people could live in the land of Canaan only if they followed these laws and acted justly. If they did not observe the law, the Bible says the land would spew them out, meaning they could not remain there. Thus, living in the land of Canaan is conditional upon the behaviour of the people living there. This legal basis for the descendants of Abraham to live there is important, as all the people currently living in Canaan—Jews, Christians, and Muslims—are descendants of Abraham. This raises questions about who the land of Canaan should belong to and what authority a promise made 4,000 years ago holds for the people living there today.

Abraham was promised a son, but his wife, Sarah, was 77 years old. Sarah suggested that Abraham have a son through her maid, Hagar, which we now refer to as surrogate motherhood. Thirteen years later, God spoke to Abraham, saying He would bless Sarah and give him a son by her, who would be the mother of nations. This remarkable promise was made to Sarah, which is why Jews refer to Abraham and Sarah together as the father and mother of faith. Isaac was born, but soon after, Sarah became concerned when she saw Ishmael mistreating Isaac. She told Abraham to cast out Hagar and Ishmael, as the son of the slave woman would not be the heir of Isaac. Abraham loved Ishmael and did not want to do this, but after praying, God told him to listen to Sarah. Abraham followed this advice, and Hagar and Ishmael were sent away. God then assured Abraham that He would bless Ishmael and make him a great nation.

Later, God commanded Abraham to offer his son as a burnt offering on Mount Moriah. The Bible specifies that this was Isaac, but Muslims believe it was Ishmael, as the Quran does not name the son. This rock is traditionally where the Jewish Temple was built, and Muslims believe that Muhammad visited heaven from this rock during his night journey. The Dome of the Rock shrine now covers this sacred site, which is open to everyone. The Old City of Jerusalem is divided into quarters, including the Christian quarter, which has many different denominations, the Muslim quarter, the Armenian quarter, and the Jewish quarter, which is connected to the Wailing Wall. After Sarah died, according to tradition, Abraham and Ishmael built the Kaaba, the first house of worship for God. This is mentioned in the Quran, where they prayed for God to accept their efforts. Muhammad later helped to rebuild the Kaaba, which had fallen into disrepair, and in 630, he cleared it of idols. There is an obligation for Muslims to go on Hajj at least once in their lifetime if they can afford it. These are the descendants of Abraham: the Ishmaelite Arab nation, the Jewish people through Isaac, and the Christians through Jesus.

Moses took the people out of Egypt into Canaan, and this is how the people settled in the boundaries of the tribes of Israel on the west and east banks of the River Jordan. During the time of the kings, the kingdom expanded. You know about King David, and I talked about him before. King Solomon expanded the kingdom considerably, even though the actual boundaries were specified very clearly by God when He told Moses to take the people living in the land of Canaan. The people of Israel were not supposed to expand beyond these borders; they were to be a nation-state, not an empire that conquers other peoples. Solomon, however, expanded the kingdom beyond these borders, which was a mistake. After his death, the kingdom split into the north and south, and as we know, the Assyrian Empire destroyed the northern kingdom.

The Jewish people experienced one empire after another: the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greek Empire, and then the Roman Empire. Herod was appointed king of Israel by Rome, and after his death, the kingdom was divided. Jesus lived during this time; he was born into this context. He did not know his tribe but died in Jerusalem, which is why there are many Christian holy sites, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, believed to be where Jesus was crucified and where the resurrection took place. The Jewish people wanted independence; they did not want to be part of any empire at all. This led to the first Jewish revolt against Roman rule, about 30 to 40 years after Jesus was crucified, which resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple.

This was led by the Roman general Titus, who took all the treasures of the Temple to Rome. The Romans used the money to rebuild Rome, including the Colosseum, which was built with the gold seized from the Temple in Jerusalem. Many beautiful buildings in Rome were financed by the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. This is how an empire functions: you invade, take their gold and silver, and spend it back home. The second Jewish revolt resulted in the deaths of half a million Jews and the destruction of nearly a thousand villages. Those who were not killed were sold into slavery, and Jews were forbidden to live in Jerusalem. The Romans renamed Israel Palestine, leading to the diaspora, with Jews living throughout the Roman Empire and the Middle East.

During the sixth century, Islam rose, and the land of Israel became part of the Byzantine Empire, settled by Christians. Although some Jews continued to live in Israel, they were expelled from Jerusalem, which was completely levelled and had its city plan changed. Muhammad is considered the Seal of the Prophets, meaning he is the last prophet. Muslims see themselves as heirs to the promises given to Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. They believe that the Quran, given to Muhammad, is the only uncorrupted revelation, unlike the Torah and the Gospel, which they claim were corrupted and re-edited. They assert that all prophets, from Adam to Muhammad, were Muslims because they submitted to God.

After Muhammad's death, there was a significant disagreement about who should inherit his authority and leadership. Some believed the leader should be the most capable person, while others argued it should be someone from Muhammad's family, specifically Ali, the husband of Fatima, one of Muhammad's daughters. Ultimately, it was decided that the leader would be Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph after Muhammad's death. This led to a split within the Muslim community, with Shia Muslims predominantly in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon believing that the ruler should be from the family of the Prophet. In contrast, Sunni Muslims believe that any qualified person can lead, which includes Arabs, Turks, and most Muslim countries. This division manifests today in two rival models: the Shia model in Iran, led by spiritual leaders like the Ayatollahs, and a more secular model in Turkey, which separates spiritual and political leadership.

After Muhammad's death, Muslim armies united the various tribes in Arabia. The caliph Umar conquered Palestine and Jerusalem from the Byzantines in 638. A few decades later, the Dome of the Rock was built, and Jewish and Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit holy sites freely. Muhammad stated that if people were 'People of the Book'—meaning Jews or Christians—they did not need to convert to Islam, as Muslims recognised the authenticity and authority of Judaism and Christianity. However, pagans were given a choice to convert or face death. Thus, Jews and Christians were allowed to visit holy sites in Jerusalem, such as the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock.

Islam spread rapidly during Muhammad's time and continued under the first caliphs throughout North Africa and into Spain. The people living in North Africa and Spain were predominantly Christians, including various sects such as Arians and Orthodox Christians. When Islam spread, many Christians did not see it as a new religion but rather as a reforming movement within Christianity, as Muhammad recognised Jesus as the Messiah. This perception contributed to the rapid acceptance of Islam. The Sunni capital became Damascus, and the Islamic empire expanded into Spain until the 11th century, with the Caliphate of Cordoba representing a golden age of culture, science, art, architecture, and philosophy. This period was unmatched in Europe, where there was little to compare in terms of architecture and culture.

When Castile expanded and drove Muslims out of Spain, they faced the question of what to do with the extraordinary mosques and buildings. Instead of demolishing them, they converted some into churches, which often resulted in architectural clashes. During this time, Muslims were relatively tolerant of Jews and Christians, leading to a flourishing of culture and learning among all three faiths. Jews and Christians were tolerated under Islamic rule but had to acknowledge Islamic superiority and accept Islamic governance and Sharia law. They paid a tax called jizya and were not allowed to fight in the army or engage in missionary activities. Despite these restrictions, Jews and Christians were not forced to live in ghettos, unlike in Christian Europe, which is why many preferred to live in Muslim countries.

In European countries, Jews were not considered slaves, but their status was precarious. In England, for instance, Jews were regarded as the private property of the king, who legally owned them. When a wealthy Jewish financier died, his money would be inherited by the king. This was not the case in Muslim countries, where a Jewish man could pass on his wealth to his children. Jews and Christians in Muslim lands were generally allowed to practice their faith freely, unlike in Christian Europe, where persecution was rampant. Catholics persecuted Protestants, and vice versa, leading to a climate of fear and forced conversions.

The expansion of Christianity in Europe can be traced back to figures like Charlemagne, who sought to extend his empire into Saxon lands. The Saxons, who were pagans, worshipped nature and had their own gods. Charlemagne forced them to convert to Christianity under threat of death, resulting in the slaughter of thousands who refused to accept his rule. In contrast, Jews living in Muslim countries were often able to pursue various occupations, including banking and trade, which were restricted for them in Christian Europe. Many Jews and Christians in Muslim lands held prestigious positions in government due to their education and literacy.

The status of women in Muslim countries was also notably better than in Christian Europe. Muslim women had the right to own property and keep their earnings, while in England, married women could not own property until the 1880s. The theoretical rights granted by Sharia law provided women with more freedoms compared to their counterparts in Christian Europe. However, the practical application of these rights varied significantly.

As time progressed, new dynasties emerged in the Muslim world, such as the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt, which led to tensions with Christians. The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 by a fanatic caliph sparked outrage among Christians, leading to the Crusades. Urban II preached the first Crusade, resulting in the capture of Jerusalem, where indiscriminate massacres of Jews, Christians, and Muslims occurred. Crusader rule lasted for about 300 years, but its impact on the vast Muslim world was limited.

The Ottoman Empire eventually rose to prominence, expanding into Anatolia and beyond, reaching parts of Europe and North Africa. By the late 15th century, Spain had become predominantly Christian, and many Jews were expelled, seeking refuge in Muslim countries where they were welcomed. At its height, the Ottoman Empire was technologically and culturally advanced compared to contemporary Europe, which was still recovering from the Dark Ages.

The knowledge that fueled the vast Muslim civilization came from a commitment to seek knowledge regardless of its origin. When Muslim armies defeated the Romans, they encountered remarkable architectural achievements and sought to understand them. The weakening of the Roman Empire due to plagues made it easier for Muslim armies to expand. In Baghdad, efforts were made to translate Greek texts into Arabic, with many Jewish scholars contributing to this intellectual revival. This knowledge later flowed back into Europe, particularly during the Renaissance, as translations from Arabic to Latin reintroduced classical knowledge.

Despite the advancements of the Muslim world, a relative decline occurred, particularly with the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent modernization in Europe. During the Middle Ages, Europe was marked by poverty and famine, with a significant portion of the population suffering. The fall of the Roman Empire led to a loss of knowledge, which was gradually regained through translations from Arabic texts. The Renaissance sparked a new era of creativity and freedom in Europe, particularly in Italian city-states, where artists and scientists flourished without restrictions.

The Reformation further transformed the religious landscape in Europe, shifting authority from the Pope to the Bible. This led to diverse interpretations of scripture and the emergence of various Christian sects. Non-conformists began to challenge established beliefs, resulting in a de facto religious freedom that allowed for a broader range of thought and expression. This environment of questioning and exploration laid the groundwork for modernity in Europe, contrasting sharply with the more rigid structures of belief in the Muslim world at the time.

The Church of England faced challenges from non-conformists who refused to attend its services. These groups, including Methodists, Baptists, and Quakers, began establishing their own chapels and places of worship, often in defiance of the law. As their numbers grew, the Church could do little to stop them. However, this non-conformity had significant implications for education; to attend university, one typically had to belong to the Church of England. Many non-conformists, therefore, created their own educational institutions, particularly technical schools, which contributed to the onset of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolution in England. This period marked a newfound freedom to innovate and experiment, as the Church could no longer control these individuals, allowing for economic development under the rule of law.

The Industrial Revolution in Britain was driven by the principles of freedom of religion, the rule of law, and the recognition of private property. This legal framework ensured that neither the state nor the Church could seize one's property without cause. As a result, Britain experienced extraordinary economic growth, which in turn increased government revenues through taxes. A strong economy enabled the state to invest in military power, leading to the expansion of European nations into Ottoman territories. Countries like Russia and France began to assert their military strength, challenging the previously dominant Ottoman Empire, which had been far more advanced in various aspects for centuries.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire coincided with the rise of nationalism in Europe, spurred by the Reformation and the desire for national churches rather than a universal Catholic Church. This shift led to movements for independence among various groups within the Ottoman Empire, such as Serbia and Greece. The Arabs also sought independence, leading to the emergence of Arab nationalism. By the 18th and 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was often referred to as the 'sick man of Europe,' reflecting its relative decline compared to the rapidly developing European powers. This shift had profound implications for the Muslim world, which had long viewed itself as superior to Jews and Christians.

For over a millennium, the Muslim world had maintained a self-understanding of superiority over Jews and Christians. However, the rise of Western Europe brought about a cultural shock, as modernity began to challenge traditional Islamic values. The Muslim world continues to grapple with the extent to which Westernisation accompanies modernity, desiring Western technology while resisting Western values. This tension is particularly evident in contemporary Middle Eastern dynamics.

In contrast, Jewish history during this period was marked by significant challenges, especially in Christian-dominated regions. Jews faced forced conversions, restrictions on professions, and violent expulsions. The Catholic Church's prohibition on usury forced many Jews into finance and banking, leading to further resentment and anti-Semitism. The expulsion of Jews from various countries, including Spain and England, resulted in migrations to places like Poland, where they sought refuge from persecution. Despite these hardships, Jews maintained a continuous presence in the land of Israel, with a deep-rooted connection to Jerusalem and the hope of returning to their ancestral homeland.

The rise of Zionism in the 19th century was a direct response to rampant anti-Semitism in Europe, particularly in Russia, which was notorious for its pogroms. Many Jews fled to Western Europe, where they faced economic hardships and rising anti-Semitic sentiments. The Dreyfus Affair in France exemplified the precarious position of Jews in society, as a Jewish army officer was wrongfully accused of treason, leading to widespread public outcry and increased anti-Semitism. This incident highlighted the dangers of Jewish assimilation in a society that remained deeply prejudiced, prompting leaders like Theodor Herzl to convene the first Zionist Congress, advocating for a Jewish homeland in response to the persistent threat of anti-Semitism.

Zionism was a secular movement with religious roots, stemming from the expectation and hope for Jews to return to Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Many of the Zionists were atheists and socialists, driven by a desire for refuge from persecution. The rise of nationalism in Europe meant that every nation sought its own state, and Jews, scattered throughout Europe, lacked a country to call their own. They yearned for a self-governing, independent nation like many others. This desire for independence was echoed by various nationalist movements across Europe, including the Serbs and other Balkan peoples. However, Zionism faced opposition from religious Jews.

The first Zionist Congress took place in 1897, followed by the First World War, which led to strategic discussions among the victors about the fate of the defeated empires. The British and French, historically rivals, reached a secret agreement to divide the Ottoman Empire into spheres of influence. The British aimed to support Arab independence to weaken the Ottoman Empire, promising the Sharif of Mecca in 1916 that they would back Arab independence if they revolted against the Ottomans. British officer Lawrence of Arabia was involved in these negotiations, which included stipulations about areas that would not be considered purely Arab.

As the war progressed, the British made various promises, including the Balfour Declaration, which expressed support for establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. This declaration, drafted by a Jewish member of the British government, included a clause ensuring that the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine would not be prejudiced. This dual promise to both Arabs and Jews created a situation where both sides felt betrayed, as the commitments were mutually incompatible and made during a time of uncertainty.

After the war, the Treaty of Versailles led to the division of the Ottoman Empire, with a designated area for a Jewish homeland. Iraq came under British rule, while other regions fell under French influence. The aftermath of the war saw significant unrest, as various ethnic groups, including Armenians and Kurds, sought independence from Ottoman rule. The Armenian genocide resulted in the murder of approximately one and a half million Armenians, highlighting the violent struggles for autonomy during this period.

The Treaty of Sèvres attempted to partition the empire, but it faced resistance from the Turks, who were unwilling to accept the division of their homeland. The failure to establish an independent Kurdistan remains a significant issue today. The Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal, later known as Atatürk, aimed to modernise and secularise Turkey, which had lagged behind in various aspects compared to the Western world. Atatürk abolished the sultanate and the caliphate, declaring Turkey a republic and moving the capital to Ankara.

This transformation was a profound shock for the Muslim world, as it marked the end of Ottoman rule and the caliphate, which had been seen as a unifying force for Muslims. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire by Western powers left a lasting impact, as many in the Muslim world grappled with the implications of this loss. The perception that Jews and Christians had failed, while Islam was seen as the final and superior revelation, contributed to ongoing tensions and struggles within the Muslim world, which continue to this day.