Jesus to the Renaissance - Day 8

Good evening everyone. Nice to see you again. It's always a source of great inspiration for me. We'll carry on from where we left off yesterday. I mentioned that I didn't really have time to prepare what I wanted to say about Saint Augustine. He obviously plays a pivotal role and is referenced in the Divine Principle, particularly at the end of the first 400 years of persecution under the Roman Empire. I want to delve into him a little more because he had a huge influence on the whole of European Christianity, particularly Western Christianity, Catholicism, and subsequently Protestantism. Within the Western Christian Church, he is acknowledged as a Church Father, and while he is also recognized in the Eastern Orthodox Church, they have many other influential Church Fathers as well. In Eastern Orthodoxy, there is more conversation about the differences between the various Church Fathers and the positions they took, whereas the Western Church is overwhelmingly influenced by Augustine and the debates, decisions, and conclusions he reached.

Augustine's mother was a devout Christian, a Catholic, while his father was a pagan, a Romanized Berber from Carthage in North Africa. They were Roman citizens, and Augustine grew up as what you might call a naughty little boy. He wrote a fascinating book called 'Confessions', which is probably the most well-known and one of the earliest accounts of a person's inner life. For example, he recounts how, as a child, he stole fruit and explains why. He reflects on his actions with a lot of introspection, stating that he stole it because it was forbidden and he loved it. He enjoyed the act of stealing more than the fruit itself. His 'Confessions' provide an extraordinarily honest account of his inner life and spiritual development, offering great insight and inspiration for Christians ever since.

As he grew up, Augustine continued in this manner and was known as quite a womaniser. He went to Rome to study and became a Manichaean, much to his mother's distress. The Manichaeans were followers of Mani, who developed a form of Gnosticism more systematically than the Gnostics we looked at before. Augustine became quite involved with the Manichaean religion, which was separate from Christianity, unlike the Gnostics who were embedded within the Christian Church. He also had a lover, with whom he was faithful for about 15 years, and they had an illegitimate child. In 382, when Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, anyone who wasn't a Christian faced penalties. Along with the closure of Greek academies, heretics were persecuted, and Theodosius decreed that all Manichaean monks would be sentenced to death. This made it risky to be a Manichaean, prompting Augustine to decide to become a Christian monk instead. He chose this path over marrying his lover and was soon elevated to the position of Bishop of Hippo.

In 410, Rome was sacked by the Visigoths under Alaric, which was a traumatic experience for the entire Christian world, much like the destruction of Judaism was for Jews and Christians at that time, especially Christian Jews. This event raised the existential question among many: why did God not protect Rome? Why did God allow this to happen? Traditional Romans argued that the reason for the sack of Rome was that they had abandoned their traditional gods. Roman religion was focused on praying for the gods to protect Rome, and the traditional pagans believed that the abandonment of these gods in favour of the Christian God led to Rome's downfall. This became a significant question for the Christian Church, and Augustine felt compelled to respond. He wrote his magnum opus, 'The City of God', as a response to the destruction of Rome.

In 'The City of God', Augustine presents a profound exploration of the relationship between the spiritual and the political. He declared that Christianity's message is spiritual rather than political, arguing that it should focus on a mystical heavenly city, the New Jerusalem, rather than earthly politics. He suggested that Christians should not be overly concerned with worldly affairs or the fate of the earthly city, as their true pursuit lies in the heavenly city. Augustine's view of history is that it is a universal warfare between God and the devil, with God moving through divine intervention or providence. He believed that those governments and movements aligned with the Catholic Church represented the Kingdom of God, while those aligned with the devil represented the city of the world. This dualistic perspective has re-emerged in Western political thought at various times, such as during George Bush's post-9/11 rhetoric about an 'axis of evil'.

Augustine's anthropology is also worth examining. He was influenced by Manichaeanism but returned to Catholicism, viewing the human being as a perfect unity of soul and body. This perspective contrasts with the Gnostic view, as Augustine respected the body as integral to human nature. He often used marriage as a metaphor for the unity of body and soul, asserting that just as one loves and cares for their spouse, one must also love and respect their body. This reflects a traditional Orthodox Jewish-Christian view of the relationship between the soul and body. Augustine also became involved in the Donatist controversy during the Diocletian persecution, which was the last major persecution before Constantine established freedom of religion. During this time, some Christians compromised their beliefs to avoid persecution, while others, known as the Donatists, refused to do so. After the persecution ended, the question arose about whether those who had compromised should be allowed back into the Church and whether they could be forgiven for their actions. This led to significant debates about penance and the administration of sacraments within the Church.

Are their sacraments valid? They commit to this mortal sin; therefore, they don't have the authority to baptise, marry people, or administer the sacraments, Mass, or communion. This big split continued for a long time, and 100 years later, it was still ongoing. This became an issue when Augustine was Bishop of Hippo. He stated that the validity of the administration of sacraments is that a sacrament is from God and is administered by priests irrespective of their personal character. He argued that it doesn't matter whether the priest has committed a mortal sin; the sacrament itself is valid. So, if you are baptised, married, or receive communion from a priest who is living in sin, the sacrament itself retains its validity. It is not related to the personal character of the priest; the sacrament comes from God.

Otherwise, one would have to consider, for example, that if the priest who married me was committing adultery at the time, am I really married? Or if the priest who gave me communion last week was a murderer, does that mean the sacraments I received from him aren't valid? This line of thinking complicates matters significantly. Augustine followed the Jewish tradition, asserting that the sacraments come from God, and the priest is merely the minister of the sacraments. When you receive a blessing, it is not the priest's blessing you are receiving; it is God's blessing through the prayer recited by the priest. This issue is also present within our own spiritual community.

But what do you do with these Donatists, these heretics? Augustine wrestled with this and concluded that state power is justified in persecuting heretics. He provided a theological basis for this, and the state was keen to persecute heretics to maintain uniformity. Augustine thought the state overdid it, but he laid the groundwork for this justification. The teaching we are most familiar with is Augustine's teaching on original sin. This teaching is prominent within the Western Church, both Catholic and Protestant, but it is not as significant within the Eastern Orthodox Church. They acknowledge that Adam and Eve committed a sin, which implies original sin, but they do not understand the term in the same way as the Western Church.

Augustine analysed this concept extensively. He stated that pride led to disobedience, which resulted in eating the forbidden fruit. He argued that Adam and Eve would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom if Satan had not sown the root of evil into their senses. This traditional Christian teaching posits that pride is the cause of the fall because Adam and Eve were proud, which led to their disobedience to God and ultimately to eating the fruit. He also noted that self-centredness made Adam and Eve eat of it. This perspective differs significantly from the principal view, which suggests that the misuse of love is what corrupted Adam and Eve.

As a result of eating the fruit, Augustine claimed that Adam and Eve's nature was wounded by concupiscence, a term that refers to sinful lust. This word is not commonly used; people often refer to it more politely as concupiscence. Augustine argued that this affected human intelligence, will, affections, and desires. He believed that because of the fall, human nature became corrupted, leading to increased lustfulness and selfishness, which manifests in various human desires. For instance, the desire to eat can lead to gluttony, and the desire for rest can lead to laziness. Thus, the fall corrupted and distorted all of human nature due to the sinful lust that Adam and Eve exhibited, which was closely tied to the sexual aspect of the fall.

Augustine asserted that sexual lust is an evil result of the fall, necessary for copulation, and therefore evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse. He suggested that without sexual lust, human beings would not engage in sexual intercourse, and consequently, the human race would not exist. He viewed sexual lust as an evil result of the fall, corrupting sexual relationships and ensuring that the next generation is born with the same corrupted nature. Interestingly, he claimed that before the fall, sex was a passionless affair, akin to a laborious task accomplished without any lascivious heat. This perspective is quite different from contemporary views on sexuality, and Augustine's reasoning reflects his attempts to grapple with these complex issues.

Augustine's understanding of human nature and sexuality led him into an argument with Pelagius, a priest from Britain who was part of the Celtic Church. Pelagius was disappointed with the Christians in Rome, who claimed they were sinful and could not live a good life according to the Sermon on the Mount. He believed that human nature was created with the power to act, speak, and think, and he rejected the notion that original sin wounded the human will and nature to the extent that people were incapable of doing anything good. Pelagius insisted that individuals are free to act righteously, using the example of eyes that have the capacity for seeing but can be used for good or bad.

Pelagius embraced a concept similar to Judaism, rejecting humanity's universal need for grace. In contrast, the Divine Principle teaches that when a person is born, they are in a midway position, where they must choose to follow their original nature and conscience towards good or succumb to their fallen nature and selfish desires. This understanding differs from Augustine's view of being born with original sin. While both traditions use the term 'original sin,' the meanings diverge significantly. Judaism and Islam also reject the idea of original sin, instead positing that humans are born with both a good inclination and an evil inclination, thus allowing for the possibility of overcoming the evil inclination without needing divine grace.

Pelagius preached in Rome, encouraging people to live up to the Sermon on the Mount, asserting that it was not merely an ideal but a possible reality. Augustine, in response to Pelagius's arguments, developed the idea that original sin is transmitted to Adam's descendants through concupiscence. He described humanity as a 'massa damnata,' a mass of perdition, which enfeebles but does not destroy the freedom of the will. Augustine argued that without God's grace, we cannot be saved, and our original mind cannot be restored. He introduced the concept of inherited guilt from Adam, suggesting that infants are eternally damned at birth. This belief led to the practice of infant baptism in the Catholic Church, as it was thought that if a baby died without baptism, they would go to hell.

Augustine's idea of inherited guilt is uncomfortable, but it influenced Protestant reformers like Luther and Calvin. However, the Divine Principle presents a different understanding of original sin, asserting that being born with original sin does not condemn one to hell; it depends on how one lives their life. Augustine's teachings on predestination also reflect his belief that the sin of pride consists in assuming that we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us based on something worthy in us. He argued that God's grace causes individual acts of faith, stemming from his own encounters and theological reflections.

In his own experience, he didn't really want to become a Christian. He kept saying to God, 'I'll become a Christian, but not yet. I just want to carry on having fun and enjoying my life.' However, as he reflected on his own confession, he realised that God broke into his life, took away his blindness, and awakened something within his heart. This transformation led him to be born again, and he argued that without God's grace, we cannot have faith. He stated that pride is when you think you are the one who has chosen God, rather than God choosing you. If God chooses us, it is not because there is something worthy in us; it is not because we are good people or have committed good deeds. Going back to Paul, it is not by works that we are saved; it is simply God's decision to choose us based on His foreknowledge. Even before we are born, God knows who will go to heaven and who will go to hell, and He already knows whom He will save.

The idea of predestination is a significant topic in Christian theology. Some people are said to be pre-destined to go to heaven, while others are pre-destined to go to hell. This concept, known as double predestination, was particularly embraced by Protestantism, especially the Calvinists. The most prominent scholar of Saint Augustine today is Kenneth Wilson, who recently published a book about the foundation of Augustinian Calvinism. He is a professor of systematic theology and church history at Grace University in America. Wilson's studies reveal that every early Christian author before Augustine advanced the notion of human free choice rather than a deterministic God. This reflects the orthodox Jewish and early Christian position that human beings have free choice and are responsible for the consequences of their decisions.

Augustine initially taught traditional free choice until he became embroiled in an argument with Pelagius. This debate was quite personal, as Augustine's views seemed to change in reaction to Pelagius's popularity. Augustine appeared to be somewhat jealous of Pelagius, who had a significant following. In response to this conflict, Augustine reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic training, which led him back to the ideas of determinism and predestination. This shift re-entered the Western philosophical and theological mindset through Augustine. The issue was not merely Augustine's thoughts but that he became a church father in the Western church, much like Al-Ghazali is considered a father of Islamic thought. If Augustine had been just one thinker among many, there would have been a balance, allowing for a more nuanced conversation about good and bad ideas.

The Germanic tribes played a crucial role in the historical context of Augustine's time. They were involved in the sack of Rome, and Augustine, from Carthage, reacted theologically and philosophically to these events. The Germanic tribes did not only invade the Roman Empire; they also moved north and settled in parts of Scandinavia. Their migrations led to significant cultural and linguistic diversity in Europe. For instance, the Finnish language is quite unusual and does not belong to the Indo-European family, which raises questions about the origins of various tribes and their languages. As the Germanic tribes settled, they became great explorers, building boats that allowed them to travel to Iceland, Greenland, and even the Americas, dominating trade routes across Europe.

The Vikings, descended from the Germanic tribes, made a substantial impact on England and France, particularly in Normandy. They were known as the Northmen and invaded various regions, including Russia and Sicily. Their invasions reshaped the European map and had lasting effects on the cultures they encountered. In England, the Vikings occupied areas that were once Anglo-Saxon, leading to the establishment of the Danelaw, where Danish customs became law. The Vikings first attacked Lindisfarne, a significant centre of Christianity, producing the Lindisfarne Gospels, a work of extraordinary beauty. They also attacked Iona, where Saint Columba lived, spreading Christianity into Scotland.

The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, who were pagans, marked a significant shift in British history. They were later Christianised by a different Saint Augustine, who was sent from Rome to Canterbury, where he founded a cathedral that became the centre of English Christianity. Upon his arrival, he noted the existence of a Christian church that had been built by the hands of the Lord, suggesting that Christianity had come to Britain independently of Rome. However, he also scolded the Celtic church for not having Christianised the Anglo-Saxons when they arrived, which was a significant trauma for the Celtic peoples. This division between the Celtic and Roman churches persisted, leading to different practices, such as the celebration of Easter, which were eventually reconciled at the Synod of Whitby. Thus, Britain became a land of three nations: England, Scotland, and Wales, each maintaining its own identity despite the overarching influence of the Roman church.

Cakes burn; that's basically what everybody knows about King Alfred. He let the cakes get burnt, and he didn't know what to do about the Vikings. So, he decided to dress up as a minstrel during a really cold winter and went into the Viking camp on Salisbury Plain. He played music, got to know people, sang songs for them, and scouted out the camp. He realised they didn't have many supplies for winter and wouldn't be able to sustain a siege. They lacked enough food stocks, and he also got to know the Viking prince, Guthrum.

After leaving the camp, Alfred raised an army of Saxons. They fought the Vikings and defeated them in the Battle of Eddington in 878. The Vikings retreated to their camp, and the Saxons laid siege to it. As the Vikings started running out of food, Alfred sent messengers to negotiate peace. The Saxon warriors initially thought they would defeat the Vikings and slaughter them all upon surrender. However, Alfred realised that while they could kill them, they couldn't drive them out of the country; there were too many and they were too strong. Thus, he decided to make peace.

Alfred went into the Viking camp and made an agreement with Prince Guthrum. He said they would accept their surrender and spare their lives if they were baptised and accepted Christ. Alfred became the godfather to Prince Guthrum, and the entire Viking army was baptised and became Christians. They agreed to settle in a designated area, which became known as the Danelaw, while the Saxons remained in their territory. This led to the Christianisation and anglicisation of the Vikings, who ultimately became English. This is why England is one country and not two, which is an important lesson about how to respond to foreign invasions.

When faced with an invasion, what do you do? It's a perennial question. Do you try to drive them out, embrace them, or divide the land? The basis for the unity of England was the Christianisation and the adoption of the English language and law. Today, there is still one law in England, while Scotland has its own legal system and traditions, and Wales is different as well. The British Isles became a unique place with three nations and various smaller regions, like the Isle of Man, which has its own parliament and is not part of the European Union. The Channel Islands are similar, and there is a degree of devolution in Scotland and Wales.

Returning to England, the kingship was influenced by the Vikings for a long time. The last Anglo-Saxon king was Edward, who was a saint but not a good king because he died childless. This created a national crisis regarding succession. The authority to choose the next king came from a council called the Witen, similar to an old parliament. Harold, the Earl of Wessex, was chosen as the next king due to his prominence and relation to Edward. Meanwhile, William, the Duke of Normandy, sought to conquer England, as it was incredibly wealthy and lacked a standing army due to its island status.

William needed a legitimate reason to invade, so he persuaded the Pope to grant him papal authority. He made allegations about corruption in the English church, promising to rectify it. However, this was merely a cover story for his ambitions. The Germanic system was weak and decentralised, which was a significant issue. King Harold raised an army in response to the threat of invasion, particularly from Harold Hardrada of Norway, who sought to reclaim authority over England. Harold of England defeated Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge but had to march his exhausted army south to face William, who had landed at Hastings.

Harold made a critical mistake by challenging William to battle without waiting to gather a larger force. The English army was positioned on a hill, while the Normans had cavalry. A rumour spread that William had been killed, prompting the English to charge down the hill. This was a ruse, and the Normans turned and attacked, leading to their victory at the Battle of Hastings. This event is famously depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, woven by English women. As a result, William became the Conqueror, and all land in England became the property of the crown, which still holds true today. The crown can requisition any land, and William confiscated land from the Anglo-Saxons, redistributing it to his followers, effectively creating an organised criminal network.

William introduced feudalism, appointing dukes, earls, and barons, establishing a hierarchical society. This system led to high levels of taxation. He took over English administration, sending scribes to record every piece of land and its details, compiling this information into the Domesday Book. This detailed account of land ownership and resources became the basis for taxation. For 200 years, the Normans ruled England, with French as the language of the ruling class, while English became the language of the peasants. This is why English food is often considered primitive; it reflects peasant cuisine. The Normans built castles to protect themselves from potential uprisings, as they were despised by the English. The Tower of London, built by William, exemplifies this oppression, as he could not conquer London directly.

The Normans expanded into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, and England became a European superpower, significantly involved in European affairs. The wealth of England grew immensely during this period, shaping its future.

The Normans were incredibly well organised and militaristic, which played a significant role in England's involvement in wars with France for hundreds of years. William the Conqueror, who became King of England, also remained Duke of Normandy and had a claim to the French throne. This period was marked by violence and upheaval; the English were not pleased with William's rule. His men burned whole villages, particularly in the north of England, leading to numerous uprisings against the Normans. Figures like Hereward the Wake in East Anglia and others in Northumbria led significant resistance against Norman control. William's army, well-equipped and organised, responded with brutal force, destroying food stores and livestock, ensuring that survivors would succumb to starvation during the harsh winters. By 1086, the devastation was evident, with the Domesday Book indicating that sixty percent of all holdings were classified as waste, and the population had drastically declined due to violence and starvation.

William's men not only slaughtered the inhabitants but also rendered the land infertile by salting it, causing long-term agricultural damage. The Anglo-Saxon chronicler Orderic Vitalis, writing about fifty years later, described the king's relentless pursuit of his enemies, noting the unprecedented cruelty displayed in the north. William's fury was unchecked, and he punished the innocent alongside the guilty, leading to the destruction of crops, herds, and food supplies. Over a hundred thousand people perished from starvation, and while I have often praised William in my writings, I cannot condone this brutal slaughter. This period of trauma in England is a historical record we seldom discuss, yet it is essential to acknowledge these events without holding grudges against those involved.

Moving on from English history, I want to explore the developments among the Slavic tribes. God's providence influenced the Germanic tribes, and missionaries spread Christianity across various regions. One legend suggests that Andrew, a disciple of Jesus, travelled north towards what is now Crimea, which is why the Russians adopted Andrew's Cross as a national symbol. The Armenian Church was established around 300 AD, followed by the Georgian Church in 325 AD, partly for political reasons. The Slavic people, particularly the Bulgars, were pagans when they migrated to the region now known as Bulgaria. Their king, Boris, was captivated by the beauty of Orthodox worship in Constantinople and sought to convert his people to Christianity. However, the close relationship between church and state posed a challenge; embracing Christianity also meant accepting Byzantine political authority, which the Bulgars were reluctant to do.

To resolve this dilemma, the Bulgars considered other Christian nations. They sent envoys to Rome, expressing their interest in Christianity without the accompanying political obligations. By this time, the political authority in Rome had weakened, allowing them to become Catholics without the political identity tied to it. The Pope sent missionaries, Cyril and Methodius, known as the apostles to the Slavs, who travelled to Moravia to introduce Christianity. They developed the Glagolitic alphabet, which later evolved into the Cyrillic alphabet. This marked the beginning of Christianity's introduction to the Slavs, and as trade flourished, the influence of Christianity spread further.

Christianity also began to reach Kiev, the capital of what was known as Rus, the precursor to modern Russia. Traders who had been converted to Orthodoxy in Constantinople returned to Kiev, bringing with them the beauty of Orthodox Christianity. Olga, the grandmother of Vladimir, was baptised and became a Christian, paving the way for her grandson's eventual conversion. Vladimir, who became king in 980, sought a religion that would unify his people and serve the state. As a pagan from the House of Rurik, he recognised that the Viking gods did not resonate with the Slavic people. He invited various religious missions to Kievan Rus to explore options for conversion.

Muslim missionaries presented their faith, but Vladimir realised that the prohibition on alcohol would not be accepted by his people. Roman Catholic missionaries came next, but the requirement to acknowledge the Pope's authority was a barrier. Jewish envoys from the Khazars were also invited, but they were seen as a subject people and did not appeal to Vladimir. Ultimately, a Greek Orthodox philosopher spoke of the extraordinary beauty of Orthodox worship, which resonated deeply with the Slavs' appreciation for beauty. In 988, Vladimir was baptised, marking the beginning of Orthodox Christianity in Russia, which would shape the cultural and spiritual identity of the nation for centuries to come.