Islam part 3

The first two weeks ago, we looked at the life of Muhammad, and then last week we examined the general beliefs and practices of Islam, specifically the Five Pillars of Faith. Now, we'll continue by completing that discussion and looking at a bit of the history. One question that often arises is about Sharia. You hear a lot about it in the newspapers these days, with claims that Muslims want to implement Sharia law in Britain and in every country around the world. So, what is Sharia? Essentially, the oldest meaning of the word is connected to the term 'path' and is often understood as a straight path to God. The general understanding is that it refers to Islamic law, but etymologically, it refers to a straight path to God. By following this path, one can achieve a relationship with God and enter into this kind of relationship with Him.

Muslims also recognise other books of scripture, such as the Torah and various texts given to different prophets. However, they assert that the fastest or shortest way to God is to follow the Sharia, which is laid down in the Quran, as other scriptures have become corrupted and are not as direct. The Sharia essentially describes the limits of acceptable behaviour, indicating what one can do. As long as you stay within these boundaries, you are walking on the path to God. We will look in more detail at the content of Sharia in the next slide.

From a Muslim point of view, a sin is an offence against God; it is crossing a boundary. It's like driving on a motorway with lines and bumps, known as cat's eyes, to remind you to stay on the straight path. If you sin, you are crossing that boundary and going off the road, which can lead to an accident. The worst sin is called shirk, which is an offence against God that implies God has a partner. We discussed this before; a crude understanding of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity is that God is God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. From a Muslim perspective, this is shirk because it suggests that God has a partner or an equal. Islam is strictly monotheistic.

Interestingly, the current situation with ISIS stems from a particular strand of Islam known as Wahhabism, which is very strict and adheres to extreme monotheism. Traditionally, within Islam, especially in Shia Islam, there has been a lot of respect for saints, and Muslims have venerated the tombs of saints. However, Wahhabis reject this practice and have systematically destroyed ancient monuments and buildings in Mecca and Medina, including the tombs of prophets. They even want to destroy Muhammad's house because they believe it is wrong for people to venerate him. This extreme monotheism gives followers of Wahhabism the justification to kill other Muslims, whom they consider deviants or corrupted. Wahhabism developed in the 18th century in Arabia and became dominant with the establishment of Saudi Arabia.

In contrast, Christians believe in the Trinity, which appears to suggest that Jesus is God, and they venerate and pray to saints like Mother Mary. This presents a stark difference when compared to Wahhabi Islam, which does not allow for any veneration of saints. The second commandment in Judaism states that one shall have no other gods before God, implying that while God is paramount, there is room for the veneration of others. This creates a middle ground, which I find quite interesting, whereas Islam tends to be more extreme in its views. From a Muslim perspective, all Christians are going to hell because they believe in the Trinity, with the exception of Unitarians, who view Jesus as a human being.

Another type of sin in Islam is zalim, which refers to hurting others. The first sin, shirk, is an offence against God, while zalim involves harming others through violence or other means. Lying, cursing, and envy are also considered sins. In Islam, only God can forgive sins if one sincerely repents. However, God can only forgive sins committed against Him; He cannot forgive sins against others. If you offend someone, only that person can forgive you. This is different from the Catholic idea of confession, where one can seek absolution from a priest for various sins. In Islam, the only person who can forgive you for offending someone is the person you have wronged.

Muslims also believe in Judgment Day, similar to Christians, where all deeds will be weighed. Good deeds and bad deeds will be assessed, determining whether one goes to heaven or hell. This understanding is very literal and is based on deeds. Within Sharia, punishments are intended as deterrents rather than revenge. For example, one punishment for theft is the amputation of a hand, which is meant to deter others from stealing. The purpose of punishment is to reform criminals and protect society. If someone commits murder, they will be taken to court quickly, and if found guilty, they may face execution, but this can be mitigated if the victim's family agrees to forgive them or accept compensation.

The judicial system in Muslim countries operates differently than in the West. Prosecutions rely on witness testimony rather than written evidence or DNA, which can lead to challenges in cases like rape, where a perpetrator can only be convicted if four witnesses saw the act. These rules were established long ago and have not been updated to accommodate modern forms of evidence. In court, the plaintiff and defendant present their cases before a judge, who decides the outcome. If the accused swears on the Quran that they are innocent, that oath carries significant weight. Justice is usually swift, with verdicts reached quickly, but the punishments remain harsh, including beheadings and amputations. Generally, prison populations are lower in strict Muslim countries compared to Western nations.

Sharia encompasses a body of law that includes family law, such as divorce, marriage, and inheritance, as well as national law. Non-Muslims in a Muslim country are often regarded as second-class citizens and may have to pay an extra tax. While religious Jews and Christians are allowed to practice their faith, they cannot expand their religion or convert others. Apostasy, or converting from Islam, is considered a serious crime, often punishable by death. Even Muslims who convert to Christianity may face persecution and abuse from their communities. Sharia also includes international law, which was more advanced than European law at the time. The Quran is the primary authority for law, followed by the Sunnah, which consists of the life and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. Judges may interpret cases based on these sources, but their rulings do not set legal precedents. Each case is tried on its own merits, and there is a separation of powers between scholars and judges in determining the law.

The rulers in Muslim countries have a limited extent to make laws because the law is determined by religious scholars rather than the rulers themselves. This creates a useful separation. In most Muslim countries, there are Sharia courts based on Sharia law. Many Muslims around the world, including those in Britain, desire their societies to be governed entirely by Sharia law and want it incorporated into English law. Currently, Sharia courts exist in England, functioning under the law of arbitration, which allows them to make rulings on various matters, particularly in family law. Many Muslims prefer not to have a civil marriage, as this would grant them rights under English law, complicating the divorce process.

Jihad, literally meaning a struggle in the way of Allah, aims to establish peace. The concept of jihad has different meanings; one is the greater jihad, which refers to the religious life. This involves following the five pillars of faith, praying five times a day, giving charity, going on Hajj, and fasting. This personal struggle is about challenging one's fallen nature and striving to become a better person. The idea is that before attempting to change society, one should first work on self-improvement. The lesser jihad, on the other hand, is the struggle to remove evil and injustice from the world. This includes speaking out against injustice and defending Islam from attacks.

When something offensive occurs, such as the publication of cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad, it can lead to widespread rioting, as Muslims feel compelled to defend their faith. Insulting the Prophet is considered blasphemous and a serious crime from a Muslim perspective. This sense of duty to defend Islam can justify various actions, including terrorist attacks. Jihad can also be a means of spreading Islam by creating environments conducive to conversion. After Muhammad's death, Islam spread rapidly through Arab armies across the Middle East, North Africa, and into Spain. While some conversions were voluntary, those who were pagans or atheists were often given the choice to convert or face death, a principle that persists today.

The concept of martyrdom, or becoming a martyr, is significant in jihad. If a person dies while fighting in jihad, they are granted the status of a martyr and are believed to go directly to heaven. For a war to be classified as jihad, it must be initiated by a religious leader, not a political one, and it should have the backing of the Muslim community. It is also meant to be defensive, although the definition of 'defensive' can be subjective. War should only be conducted after all peaceful means have been exhausted, and it should not be used to gain converts, land, or power. The theory of jihad looks appealing, but the practical application often diverges significantly from these ideals, as seen in the ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.

The major divide in the Muslim world today is between Sunni and Shia Muslims, a division that dates back to the early days of Islam. This split originated from a disagreement over who should succeed the Prophet Muhammad after his death. At that time, there were about 100,000 Muslims who had formed a single Islamic state on the Arabian Peninsula. The question of succession led to a meeting among the Muslims of Medina shortly after Muhammad's death, where they sought to appoint a leader from their community. Abu Bakr, one of Muhammad's first followers, was eventually chosen as the leader, but there were others, including Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, who believed they should have been the rightful successors.

The Sunni believe that Abu Bakr was chosen by Muhammad to lead the congregation in prayer on his deathbed, while the Shia argue that Muhammad appointed Ali as the spiritual guide for all believers. This disagreement over leadership led to further divisions, with Ali eventually accepting Abu Bakr's leadership to prevent further discord. After Abu Bakr's death, Umar became the second caliph, having initially opposed Muhammad but later converting to Islam. Umar's leadership was marked by significant political maneuvering, and he was eventually assassinated, leading to Ali's ascension as the fourth caliph. Ali faced opposition from Aisha, Muhammad's wife, and others who accused him of failing to seek justice for Umar's murder, resulting in further conflict and division within the Muslim community. The struggle for leadership and the subsequent bloodshed created a lasting rift that continues to influence the Muslim world today.

Eventually, they were defeated in a series of uprisings, and there are still about half a million of them surviving in different parts of North Africa under Zanzibar. After Ali was assassinated, Muawiya became the next caliph and moved the capital from Kufa in Iraq to Damascus. This marked the beginning of the Umayyad Dynasty, which lasted for a long time. During this period, Islam expanded significantly. The struggle, which was very bitter, continues to this day. Muawiya was very monarchical, and after he died, he was succeeded by his son Yazid. The people of Kufa were not pleased with this succession, as Yazid was not seen as a legitimate caliph.

Hussein, the son of Ali, set off from Kufa for his home in Medina but was met by Yazid's forces before reaching his destination. Despite being hopelessly outnumbered, Hussein and his small group of companions refused to pay allegiance to Yazid, asserting that he was not a legitimate caliph. Consequently, they were killed, and Hussein sacrificed his life for the survival of Shia Islam. From that time, the Shia community has traced a line of imams or leaders, numbering twelve directly from the Prophet's family, with a thirteenth who became the hidden Imam. In contrast, the Sunni community followed a different lineage, selecting leaders based on professional qualifications.

This struggle for leadership is typical of many religious movements. The early Christian Church faced a similar conflict regarding who should lead after the death of Jesus. According to the Book of Acts, James, the brother of Jesus, became the head of the church in Jerusalem, while Peter and Paul had their own roles. Paul, who was not a member of Jesus's family or one of the disciples, based his leadership on a personal encounter with the resurrected Jesus, claiming to be a super apostle. This led to significant conflict, and eventually, James was killed, along with many of Jesus's family during the revolt against Rome in 70 AD. Early Christians and Muslims alike could see that such killings were against God's law.

The killings in early Islam were largely political and very messy. Some, like Ali, were ambivalent about Muslims killing Muslims, while others accepted it. This ongoing conflict between Sunni and Shia Muslims continues today, with many Muslims being killed by other Muslims rather than by Jews or Christians. The question of who represents true Islam—Sunni or Shia—remains a deeply political issue, compounded by religious fanaticism. This struggle has persisted for a thousand years, unlike ordinary political conflicts that tend to resolve over time. The religious dimension intensifies these conflicts, as seen in historical and contemporary examples, such as the situation in Northern Ireland.

In our own movement, we can observe similar struggles within the family and the institution. There are competing visions of how a community should be organized and where legitimate authority lies. The challenge is to fit these different aspects together. For instance, England has managed to balance lineage with democratic representation through its royal family and parliamentary system. The problem arises when one believes there should be a single leader in charge of everything, leading to struggles for power. In the early days of Islam, this inability to resolve leadership issues resulted in a split that has had lasting consequences.

The early division between Muslims from Medina and Mecca was a significant factor in the political landscape of Islam. Ali's involvement in early meetings was crucial, yet the complexities of human nature and politics led to divisions that still resonate today. The lessons from these early struggles are relevant to all organizations, religious or otherwise. Human nature tends to repeat itself, and the question remains whether we can learn from these historical conflicts or continue to repeat the same mistakes. The early days after Muhammad's death set the stage for ongoing issues in the Middle East.

The Umayyad Dynasty, established in Damascus, expanded rapidly, reaching into Spain and North Africa. This expansion was marked by significant conquests, including Jerusalem, which was taken from the Byzantine Empire. Caliph Umar built the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount, which had previously been used as a rubbish dump by Christians. He cleared the area and allowed Jewish and Christian pilgrims to visit holy sites freely. The Al-Aqsa Mosque is considered one of the most sacred sites in Islam, and its significance varies between Sunni and Shia perspectives.

The Islamic Empire expanded rapidly during the first 130 years after Muhammad's death, uniting various Arab tribes into an Islamic state. The rapid conquests of Christian lands in the Middle East and North Africa created a sense of fear in Europe, leading to the roots of Islamophobia. This fear stemmed from the perception of Islam conquering Christian countries, which was a significant concern during that period.

Then going into what's now called Turkey, we see the fall of Banti and the fall of Constantinople, specifically Hagia Sophia, which was the largest Christian church in the world. It was converted into a mosque, and then Islam expanded later on under the Ottomans into Eastern Europe. This expansion is part of the roots of the European fear of Islam, which can be traced back to significant historical events. For instance, in 732, the Muslims were defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours. This battle marked a pivotal moment in European history, as it halted the Muslim advance into Western Europe.

One implication of Muslim Sharia law is the concept of waqf, which means that any land conquered by Muslims is consecrated and always remains Muslim; it can never revert to its previous status. This perspective is evident in the views of figures like Osama Bin Laden, who referred to Spain as a Muslim land that should still be under Muslim control, calling it Al-Andalus. This notion connects to the broader issue regarding the Jewish state of Israel, where the contention lies not merely in the presence of Jews but in the fact that it is not under Muslim control, as dictated by this doctrine.

The Abbasid Dynasty emerged as a reaction to Arab domination. Many who converted to Islam were not Arabs, yet the Quran was written in Arabic. This led to a cultural imperialism that denigrated existing languages, histories, and literatures, particularly in Persia, which had a rich pre-Islamic culture. The Abbasids, descended from Muhammad's youngest uncle Abbas, ruled with their capital in Baghdad, representing a mixture of Arab and Persian cultures, as well as Sunni and Shia influences. However, they were relatively weak, and power became fractured among various regional dynasties until the Mongols sacked Baghdad, leading to a significant cultural disaster.

Following the Abbasid decline, a new dynasty emerged in Egypt in 969, known as the Fatimid Caliphate. They were Ismaili Shia, opposed to the Sunnis in Baghdad. One notable figure from this period was al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who was considered eccentric and even mad by some. He ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem in 1009, which angered Christians in Europe. Meanwhile, the Seljuk Turks moved through Turkey, defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, which threatened Christian pilgrimage routes and prompted Pope Urban II to preach a crusade to retake Jerusalem.

The Crusades began, and by 1099, Jerusalem was captured, with the population massacred by the Crusaders, who did not discriminate between Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Saladin, a capable general, recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. The Crusader rule ended in Syria in 1291, and Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453. The period of the Crusaders lasted only a couple of hundred years, after which the Ottoman Empire expanded through Eastern Europe, reaching as far as Vienna, where they were twice defeated.

The Ottoman Empire controlled vast territories until the 19th century, gradually being pushed back, particularly after World War I. Today, the largest Muslim country in the world is Indonesia, with significant populations in North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia, including Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. India has the largest number of Muslims in a single country. Conflicts have arisen in various regions, including Nigeria, where some northern states have adopted Sharia law, leading to severe consequences for those accused of adultery. Additionally, there are large Muslim communities in China, where Islamic fundamentalism is also on the rise.

Osama Bin Laden's justification for the 9/11 attacks is rooted in his interpretation of the Quran. He argued that permission to fight against disbelievers is granted to those who have been wronged. He claimed that Muslims worldwide were attacked whenever one part of the Muslim community faced aggression. Bin Laden cited various grievances, including support for oppressive regimes and the perceived injustices faced by Muslims in Palestine. He framed the United States as a democracy, arguing that all Americans share responsibility for their government's actions, thus rendering no civilians innocent in his view.

Bin Laden called for a return to Islam, which he characterised as a religion of monotheism, sincerity, and righteousness. He urged Muslims to reject immorality and debauchery, advocating for a return to Islamic principles. He also condemned Western influence and called for an end to support for corrupt leaders in Muslim countries. His justification for violence and terrorism is deeply rooted in a particular interpretation of Islamic law, which not all Muslims accept. However, there is a significant portion of the Muslim community that resonates with his views, particularly regarding the perceived injustices faced by Muslims globally.

When they conquered these other countries, they thought, 'Wow, these people have better buildings than us; they have more knowledge than us. We want some of this.' A lot of the mosques that were built were constructed by Christian Greek architects, based on Roman and Greek technology. The Arabs, the Muslims, inherited all this knowledge from Greece and also from India. For example, the numbers we use today are called Arabic numerals, in contrast to Roman numerals, which were quite different. The idea of zero was also introduced; the Romans and Greeks knew nothing about zero. This concept was inherited by Muslims from India, where Indian mathematicians had developed the idea of zero, and the Arabs spread this mathematics to Europe. Consequently, Europe inherited mathematics from the Muslim world, and science was predominantly developed in the Muslim world as well.

The vocabulary we use today in fields like chemistry and physics contains Arabic words. Many Enlightenment discoveries by European scientists were based on translations of Arabic science textbooks. They were able to build upon this knowledge, which was far more advanced than what was available in Europe at the time. Biology, horticulture, and botany were also highly developed in the Muslim world before Europe inherited this knowledge. The word 'algebra' is an Arabic term, and many standard textbooks of medicine were written in Arabic. In places like Tajikistan, they were performing complex surgeries and using anesthetics, while in Europe, if you became sick, they would simply bleed you. Arab hospitals in Spain were far more advanced, employing anesthetics and disinfectants long before Europe caught up.

Historiography was another area where the Muslim world excelled, writing histories long before Europe began to take history seriously during the Enlightenment. Commerce and trade were highly developed, with the biggest libraries and the first universities located in Muslim countries. Art was extraordinarily beautiful; Islamic tiles and calligraphy are stunning examples of this creativity. The Arabic script allows for beautiful calligraphy in ways that the Latin script cannot match. Architects created incredibly beautiful buildings, often anonymously, as they were not allowed to sign their names. However, one architect cleverly signed his name at the top of a door in a way that could only be read using a mirror, showcasing the creativity of the time.

Architecture in the Muslim world was extraordinarily beautiful, and Europe began to catch up during the Gothic period, but this was long after the height of Islamic architecture. Many inventions, such as telescopes and pendulum watches, were developed during this time. The question arises: why wasn't the Messiah born in a Muslim country? Muslims believe in Jesus as a prophet and the Messiah, and they believe in the Virgin birth and that Jesus will return at the end of days to judge the world. Two thousand years ago, the future was open; God did not know where the Messiah would come from because it depended on who would make a foundation to receive Him. Free will and responsibility play a role in this, and many possibilities existed for where the Messiah could be born.

The foundation of faith and the foundation of substance were necessary for the Messiah's arrival. The unity of Hebraism and Hellenism is crucial; Hebraic traditions are based on spiritual culture and free will, while Hellenistic culture emphasises reason and science. The Divine Principle states that only when Hebraism and Hellenism can separate Satan from the prevailing spirit of the age can the foundation necessary for receiving Christ at the Second Advent be established. This synthesis of traditions is essential for understanding the cultural flowering that occurred under the Umayyad Dynasty in Islamic Spain, which was one of the greatest periods in European history.

During this golden age, the Caliphate of Córdoba lasted for about 100 years, marked by a flourishing of culture, science, art, architecture, philosophy, libraries, and medicine. The rest of Europe was in a miserable state during this time. The buildings constructed in Spain were remarkable, such as the Alhambra, an extraordinarily beautiful mosque. Interestingly, a Christian church was built in the middle of this mosque because the Christians could not adapt to it; they did not want to demolish it. Islamic Spain was relatively tolerant of Jews and Christians, leading to a remarkable flourishing of Jewish and Christian culture during this period. Perhaps the Messiah could have come from this environment, but circumstances changed.

As Islamic thought developed, the Arabs adopted and adapted various elements, including Greek architecture and philosophy. One of the earliest Muslim philosophers, Al-Farabi, encountered Aristotle's works, and during the Abbasid Dynasty, vast amounts of Greek literature were translated into Arabic by Christian Arabs. This included geometry and other philosophical texts. Al-Farabi sought to synthesize the revelations of the Quran with the philosophy of Aristotle, believing that both paths led to the same truth. This synthesis became a cornerstone of Islamic culture, leading to a flowering of intellectual achievements.

Another significant figure was Avicenna, a polymath from Uzbekistan who made substantial contributions to medicine, philosophy, and science. He also synthesized Islamic thought with Aristotelian philosophy, continuing the tradition of intellectual growth. Al-Ghazali, a Persian philosopher, had a religious experience that led him to systematize Sufism and critique the works of Avicenna. His book, 'The Incoherence of the Philosophers,' rejected the Greek tradition, asserting that if something was not in the Quran, it was either untrue or unnecessary. Unfortunately, his views became the dominant philosophical stance in the Muslim world, limiting intellectual freedom.

In Spain, however, a more liberal atmosphere persisted, allowing for the development of thinkers like Ibn Rushd, who sought to reconcile Islam with Aristotelian philosophy. He faced opposition from Al-Ghazali's followers, leading to his exile and the destruction of his works. This marked a tragic turning point in Islamic philosophy. Ibn Rushd's writings, which included critiques of Al-Ghazali, became foundational for later Western thought. His synthesis of Aristotle and Islamic teachings influenced both Jewish and Christian scholars, leading to a rich intellectual tradition.

The decline of this golden age in Spain began with invasions by Muslim tribes from North Africa, which led to a gradual cultural, economic, and political decline. This decline also contributed to the rise of Islamic extremism, as the Muslim world struggled to understand how it had fallen behind Europe, which had once been less advanced. The shock of this reversal created a complex response within the Islamic world, leading to various interpretations and reactions to their historical trajectory. The synthesis of Hebraism and Hellenism in Judaism allowed for a flourishing of Jewish culture, while the lack of a national foundation in Islam hindered similar developments.

In answer to your short question, it's interesting to note that if you apply the principle, it becomes a very powerful analytical tool to address such queries. What went wrong? Well, you need to synthesise the ideas of Al-Ghazali and Hellenism, which were in dialogue for a long period. However, for various reasons, this dialogue broke down. It's not that Al-Ghazali was a bad person; he was a profound philosopher and a wonderful individual. The issue arose when his philosophy became the dominant one.

This situation is somewhat analogous to the weaknesses found in Western Christianity. Augustine was a great Church Father, but in Western Christianity, he is often seen as the only one, whereas the Orthodox Church recognises many Church Fathers. This creates an imbalance. Similarly, in Western Europe today, we have a multitude of philosophers. You have Hume, who is an intense sceptic, and others who are incredibly religious. This diversity is beneficial when various philosophers engage in discussion with one another.

The problem arises when a country or culture adopts a single philosopher and dismisses all the others. This leads to a narrow and problematic worldview. Al-Ghazali was indeed a great man, a remarkable philosopher and thinker. The issue was that the Muslim world embraced him as the singular authority, which resulted in the marginalisation of other philosophers like Avicenna, Al-Farabi, and even the ideas of Aristotle and Plato. This led to an incredible narrowness and extremism in thought.