Renaissance to the Second Advent - Day 4

As I said then, what we're doing here is tracing God's providence to see how it has developed. For the past 2000 years, God's providence, the way in which God's grace has been dispensed, is to create a democratic social legal environment which will protect Christ at the Second Advent. We've seen how God has tried to work through anyone who would be able to respond. God hasn't got favourites; whoever is willing to respond to God is the person that God will work with. So, we're looking now at what's been going on in Europe over the last few hundred years, examining different parts of European history and how God's providence has developed in different countries. Let's carry on looking at England now.

After the death of Queen Elizabeth, James I of England and VI of Scotland was invited to become the king of England, Scotland, and Wales. He titled himself the King of Great Britain and Ireland. He came from Scotland and had a son, Charles I, who succeeded to the throne in 1625. He was influenced by the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings, which was developed in France by Jean Bodin, a profound religious scholar and political thinker. He thought a lot about the basis for legitimate authority, which raises the important question: why should I obey the king or any political authority? In a democratic society, we say our government has legitimate authority because it was elected by us, the people. But in the days of monarchy, that justification didn't apply.

Charles I, influenced by John Bodin, inherited this doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings, believing that his authority was derived from God. In other words, God had appointed him, and because of this divine right, he was above the law and not answerable to Parliament. He could do whatever he wanted, seeing himself as answerable only to God. This doctrine didn't go down well in England and was challenged by the English Parliament. It worked better in Scotland, where the Scottish Parliament was weak, allowing Charles to get away with more. However, Parliament wouldn't cooperate with Charles I, who tried to raise taxes without consent, which was illegal.

The English Parliament was the only body with the authority to raise taxes, dating back to the Middle Ages. If the king wanted money, he had to ask Parliament. Charles I didn't see why he needed to make deals with Parliament, so he started selling monopolies, granting individuals the right to engage in specific trades for money, which was also illegal. When Parliament got on his case, he decided to dissolve it. Only a king can call or dissolve Parliament, which is one of the royal prerogatives. After dissolving Parliament, he ruled by himself for 11 years, a period marked by peace because he had no money to engage in wars. This stability made many people happy, but Charles was running out of money and growing increasingly frustrated.

In terms of church doctrine, Charles I was a high Anglican, leaning towards Catholicism, which made people suspicious of him. He wanted to unify England and Scotland, believing it was important for everyone to worship God in the same way. He attempted to impose a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer, the Church of England's prayer book, on Scotland. This move angered the Scots, who were very proud of their distinct religious practices. They formed a national covenant, steeped in biblical traditions, and decided to rebel. Realising he needed money to deal with the Scots, Charles recalled Parliament, but instead of complying, the MPs began to complain and make moves to impeach royal officials. This angered Charles, leading him to dissolve Parliament again in 1640.

The Scottish Covenanters invaded England, reaching as far as Newcastle before retreating. Charles needed to raise an army to fight against the Scots, so he recalled Parliament again to raise money. However, as soon as Parliament was recalled, they began to impeach royal officials, which infuriated Charles. The impeachment process became complicated as Parliament struggled to find laws that the officials had broken. Eventually, the king decided to raise his standard and called for support against Parliament, leading to a civil war between the Cavaliers, who supported Charles, and the Roundheads, who supported Parliament. Initially, Parliament struggled, but Oliver Cromwell, a disciplined Puritan, raised a new model army, which was the first modern army in England. Eventually, Charles I was defeated and tried, leading to his execution in 1649, a controversial act without a solid legal basis.

Dictators often desire to be surrounded by sycophants who worship and look up to them. However, Oliver Cromwell was not interested in that; he simply wanted a good judge. Whether that judge respected him or liked him did not concern him; what mattered was that the judge would obey him and be loyal. This aspect of Cromwell's character is intriguing. He was a profound religious thinker and a strong Puritan. When he sat for a portrait, the artist aimed to paint him handsomely, as is customary. Yet Cromwell insisted, "Paint me warts and all," desiring an honest and transparent representation of himself. This illustrates the kind of person he was.

Cromwell initiated various religious reforms, the first being the abolition of the Act of Uniformity. This Act, introduced by Queen Elizabeth, mandated that all Christians worship according to the Book of Common Prayer and attend the Church of England. By abolishing the Act, Cromwell allowed for a reformation of the Church of England, which was transformed along Presbyterian lines, similar to the practices in Scotland. This was a significant shift, as James I had previously resisted such changes, famously stating, "No bishop, no king." With the abolition of bishops, the Church of England became governed by a Presbyterian structure, allowing for greater religious freedom.

The abolition of the Act of Uniformity led to a flourishing of independent churches and sects. During the Commonwealth, there was essentially complete religious freedom, enabling people to form their own groups to worship God as they saw fit. Various sects emerged, such as the Ranters, who were anti-clerical and believed in a very egalitarian approach to God. The Fifth Monarchists sought political reform, viewing themselves as the fifth empire prophesied in the Bible. The Muggletonians and Quakers also emerged during this time, with the latter, led by George Fox, advocating for guidance by an inner light. Quakers would gather in circles, and anyone could speak when they felt inspired by the Holy Spirit, embodying a deeply egalitarian ethos.

This period was marked by incredible religious pluralism and a variety of millennial groups anticipating the Second Advent. Figures like William Blake expressed the belief that the Messiah would be born in England. The Puritans who emigrated to America sought to create a 'city on a hill,' but many remained in England, striving to establish a new Jerusalem. Their strict religious application and moral codes coexisted with a spirit of free thinking, exemplified by the Putney Debates. Following the execution of Charles I, the question arose: if the king's authority was nullified, who held the power to govern? This debate led to radical ideas about government, wealth redistribution, and universal suffrage, but ultimately resulted in a lack of consensus.

Cromwell and the army council recognised the potential for anarchy and social chaos if these debates continued without resolution. To maintain social order and discipline, Cromwell assumed the role of Lord Protector, sidelining Parliament and enforcing the law through magistrates. This approach led to a relatively peaceful time, averting social breakdown. Despite the suppression of parliamentary debates, there was still a vibrant atmosphere of free thought and expression. Milton, for instance, advocated for freedom of the press, and significant religious literature emerged during this period, including John Bunyan's 'Pilgrim's Progress.'

Simultaneously, the Enlightenment began to take shape, introducing concepts like Deism, which sought a rational basis for theology. Lord Herbert, a key figure during the Commonwealth, noted the confusion among various religious sects and argued for a theology grounded in reason. He proposed that there is one supreme God who deserves worship because He created the universe and humanity. Worship, in this view, is expressed through virtuous living, aligning with the teachings of the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount. This rational approach to Christianity emphasised morality over complex theological doctrines.

As biblical criticism emerged, figures like Tyndale, Collins, and others began to scrutinise the scriptures, revealing contradictions within the Bible. This scrutiny raised questions about the authority of the Bible as the word of God. Many began to doubt the reliability of scripture, leading to a crisis of faith. The Protestant movement had previously sought to return to the Bible, but as reason began to undermine its authority, believers faced uncertainty about their faith's foundation. In England, a number of intelligent Christians engaged with Deism while still affirming their belief in the Bible, leading to a rich discourse on faith and reason. Figures like Bishop Butler critiqued the limitations of reason, arguing that not everything can be understood rationally, yet still holds truth. Thus, the Deist perspective was just one voice among many, and many intellectuals found it respectable to maintain a Bible-believing faith despite the challenges posed by rationalism.

Deism transitioned through biblical Christianity into extreme skepticism, atheism, and materialism. The intellectual class in England became increasingly atheistic and materialistic. However, the Church of England was very intellectually engaged and active, allowing it to engage with these thinkers and defeat them intellectually. As a result, many people in English life remained Christians despite the prevailing skepticism. We can observe the development of Enlightenment thought and empiricism in England, where rationalism was largely defeated. The English intellectual tradition developed on the basis of empiricism, which emphasises knowledge gained through experience and observation.

One of the earliest proponents of this empiricism was Thomas Hobbes, who wrote a book called 'Leviathan'. He lived during the English Civil War, a time of complete social breakdown, where families were divided as brothers and fathers fought on opposing sides. This civil war was incredibly divisive, similar to the recent debates over Scottish independence and Brexit, which have also caused significant social and political instability. Hobbes realised the importance of political authority for maintaining social order, advocating for absolute authority by a ruler as long as they maintained that order. This perspective is crucial when considering failed states, where re-establishing order becomes exceedingly difficult.

Following Hobbes, John Locke emerged as another key figure. He was an empiricist who justified the Glorious Revolution and believed that truth comes from experience and observation. Locke critiqued paternalism in his writings and advocated for a form of liberal democracy. His ideas significantly influenced the American founding fathers. Locke also authored 'Reasonable Christianity', aiming to provide an intellectual basis for Christianity. He was a deep Christian and sought to integrate his philosophical insights with his faith.

Isaac Newton, one of history's greatest scientists and mathematicians, also contributed to this intellectual landscape. He developed calculus and formulated the laws of gravity while being a profound religious thinker. Newton wrote numerous commentaries on the Bible, highlighting the interplay between science and faith. Another significant figure was Bishop Berkeley, who, as a bishop, contributed to the empiricist tradition. The Enlightenment in England developed within the Church, with leading philosophers like Locke, Berkeley, and others being devout Christians. This infusion of Christian spirit and morality into Enlightenment thought was significant, as it sought to integrate spirituality with empirical inquiry.

However, empiricism's reliance on individual experience led to a certain skepticism about authority and rationalism. This sceptical attitude was evident in the political changes following Oliver Cromwell's death, which resulted in confusion over succession. Richard Cromwell, Oliver's son, was not suited for leadership, leading to the Restoration of the monarchy. Charles II was invited back from France, and the monarchy sought to restore the Church of England to its previous state, reintroducing the Book of Common Prayer and punishing those involved in the execution of Charles I. This marked a reactionary movement against the changes of the Commonwealth period.

James II, Charles II's brother, was also a high Anglican with tendencies towards Catholicism. He issued a Declaration of Indulgence, granting religious freedom to Catholics and Protestants, which was met with resistance from the Church of England. The Anglicans aimed to revert to the Act of Uniformity, which mandated attendance at the Church of England. This push for uniformity led to social and political instability, as a significant portion of the population identified as non-conformists, refusing to adhere to the established church's demands. Figures like William Law exemplified this dissenting tradition, advocating for independent churches and spiritual freedom.

James II's attempts to grant religious freedom were met with suspicion, particularly regarding his Catholic sympathies. This led to the invitation of William of Orange to England, marking the Glorious Revolution. This revolution aimed to preserve Protestant England and re-establish parliamentary authority, as James II was perceived to have overstepped his bounds. The revolution was termed 'glorious' not only for its relatively peaceful nature but also because the leaders became the new establishment, legitimising the transfer of power. The crux of the issue was whether James II had the authority to declare such freedoms, which many believed he did not, as only Parliament held that power.

Following the Glorious Revolution, there was a further spiritual renewal within the Church of England. However, the Anglican Church became somewhat ossified and spiritually stagnant, with a doctrine known as latitudinarianism that emphasised rationality over enthusiasm. This was a reaction against the fervent religious enthusiasm that characterised the Commonwealth period. John Wesley emerged later as a significant figure in this context. He was one of many children of an Anglican priest and was raised in a devout household. Wesley struggled with his faith and sought assurance of his salvation, which he found during a service influenced by the Moravian tradition. This experience transformed his life and led him to preach sermons that deeply touched the hearts of many, prompting public repentance and a renewed faith in Jesus.

Despite his Anglican background, Wesley faced resistance from the establishment due to his enthusiastic approach to faith. He began preaching outdoors, especially in rapidly growing industrial cities where churches were scarce. His movement, known as Methodism, developed a systematic approach to spiritual life, emphasising prayer, study, and mutual accountability among believers. Wesley's efforts led to the formation of Methodist circles, where Christians gathered for fellowship and worship. He travelled extensively, delivering thousands of sermons and writing numerous works, becoming a pivotal figure in the religious landscape of his time.

With scientists, Swedenborg, and others, the focus was on personal and social regeneration. There are two important dimensions here: the personal transformation within one's life and a significant emphasis on social change. After his death, the Methodist connection separated from the Church of England and formed its own church, now known as the Methodist Church. The focus remained on social regeneration, leading many to become Methodists, particularly in urban areas. As a result, they stopped drinking, which was closely associated with Methodism and the temperance movement. Many people in the cities consumed excessive amounts of gin, leading to personal and familial issues, as well as broader social problems. When individuals became Methodists and were touched by the Holy Spirit, they often stopped drinking overnight.

This transformation extended to the working class. Men who had previously spent their wages on alcohol would return home on Fridays with their earnings and hand them over to their wives. The women in these churches became influential in managing household finances and organizing family affairs. Instead of squandering their money on drinking, the men were encouraged to let their wives manage the household, which led to a significant transformation. This personal, familial, and social change resulted in improved social circumstances for Methodists, who began to pursue education and eventually moved into the middle class. This shift contributed to a broader social transformation, with Methodists becoming involved in the trade union movement. Most working-class institutions in Britain were initiated by Methodists, and trade unions were often grounded in Methodism, with leaders referred to as the 'father of the chapel.'

The roots of socialism in Britain also trace back to the Methodist Church, known as Christian socialism. This movement was incredibly influential and played a significant role in transforming Britain. It is often cited as a key reason why there was no equivalent to the French Revolution in Britain. Additionally, Wesley's influence extended to America, where another English preacher, George Whitefield, led an evangelical revival. This revival was not limited to the Methodist Church; there was also a significant evangelical movement within the Anglican Church. Whitefield focused on America and contributed to the Great Awakening in the American colonies, converting more people to Christianity through his preaching than Wesley did. However, Wesley's approach differed; he invested time in the lives of those who accepted Jesus, establishing study circles that evolved into spiritual communities and churches, while Whitefield moved on quickly after conversions.

Both Wesley and Whitefield were influential figures during this period. The religious freedom and pluralism that emerged in England resulted in a society deeply touched by Christianity. Up until the 1960s, much of English society was built on a Christian foundation. The evangelical revival within the Anglican Church led to a focus on studying the Bible, prompting the establishment of Sunday schools to teach children to read. This initiative expanded beyond reading to include writing and other subjects, highlighting the value of education. Consequently, many church schools were founded, and today, between a third and half of schools in England are church schools established by congregations. These congregations recognized the importance of education and raised funds to build schools on church land.

Local government in England is organized on a parish basis, and prayers are still held in Parliament today. For instance, to reserve a seat in the House of Commons, one must attend morning prayers, as there are not enough seats for all Members of Parliament. The trade unions and the Labour Party in Britain were also initiated by Christians. Notably, Tony Blair was a devout Christian, and only two leaders of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn and Michael Foot, were atheists. The rest were strong Christians, reflecting the historical influence of Christianity in British politics. Universities were also founded by Christians, further demonstrating the pervasive impact of faith on education and governance in England.

In Scotland, a similar yet distinct development occurred during the Scottish Enlightenment, with figures like David Hume emerging as prominent philosophers. Hume, a thorough skeptic and empiricist, wrote 'A Treatise of Human Nature,' which explored human nature from an experiential perspective. He identified what he termed the three laws of justice, which align with the concept of the three blessings. Hume's ideas contributed to the development of free market economics, as he analysed human nature and the best economic systems for society. He recognised that human beings are a mix of conscience and selfishness, leading him to advocate for a free market economy that would foster peace and prosperity. His insights laid the groundwork for the economic theories that would later be adopted globally.

Hume's contemporaries, such as Adam Smith, also contributed significantly to moral philosophy and economics. Smith's 'The Theory of Moral Sentiments' examined morality and human nature, while his later work, 'The Wealth of Nations,' discussed the principles of free market economics. He understood that a prosperous society must consider human nature as it is, rather than as it ought to be. The free market, according to Smith, was the best system to ensure a peaceful and prosperous society. The adoption of free market ideas in various countries has consistently led to wealth and prosperity. Other notable figures from the Scottish Enlightenment included Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, and Robert Burns, a celebrated poet. This period in Edinburgh, often referred to as the 'Athens of the North,' marked a flourishing of intellectual life comparable to that of ancient Greece.

The philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment were known for their camaraderie, often meeting in taverns to discuss ideas and support one another's work. Unlike some philosophers in other countries who were envious of each other's success, these thinkers fostered a spirit of friendship and collaboration. Despite their skepticism, they recognised the value of religion as a means of transmitting moral values across generations. While they may not have been orthodox believers, their understanding of religion's role in society was profound. This intellectual environment contributed to the emergence of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England and also flourished in Scotland, particularly in Glasgow with its shipbuilding industry. The Industrial Revolution arose from God's providence, aiming to restore the living environment and promote the spread of the gospel.

Upon the legal system, you can't bribe an English judge; it just doesn't happen. People know that if they want justice according to the law, that's where they go. It's also a place where people can raise capital for investment and transfer risk through insurance. During the Industrial Revolution, mechanisation and factories emerged because people started inventing things. They had the freedom to invent and build factories without needing anyone's permission, as long as they owned the land. This led to a significant increase in productivity, lowering manufacturing costs and making textiles and clothing cheaper. The development of steam power, particularly with James Watt's steam engine, revolutionised industries, moving away from reliance on water mills to factories powered by steam, which could be built anywhere.

The Industrial Revolution is arguably the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. It marked the first time in history that the living standards of ordinary people began to undergo sustained growth. For ten thousand years, the global population remained relatively stable until the Industrial Revolution, which was preceded in England by the Agricultural Revolution. This period allowed for the production of more food and goods, enabling a rise in living standards for ordinary people, rather than just the elite. Everything we enjoy today is a result of that Industrial Revolution, which had never happened before.

Interestingly, very few of the people behind the Industrial Revolution were members of the Church of England; they were predominantly non-conformists such as Methodists, Quakers, Presbyterians, and Baptists. The Church of England represented the establishment, and to enter politics or the legal profession, one had to be a member. Non-conformists, however, were outside this establishment and included many intelligent free thinkers. They were not bound by tradition and could explore new ideas without fear of persecution. This intellectual freedom allowed them to establish technical colleges, leading to innovations like the spinning jenny and the steam engine.

Quakers, in particular, were known for their honesty and simple lifestyles, which made them trustworthy bankers. Many banks, including Barclays, were founded by Quakers, who were seen as scrupulously honest and not interested in ostentatious living. The banking industry developed on the moral principle that one's word was one's bond, allowing transactions to occur without the need for written contracts. The Huguenots, French Protestants who escaped persecution, also contributed significantly to industries such as glass making and machine tools, furthering the technological advancements in Britain.

The Industrial Revolution occurred first in England due to several factors, including freedom of religion, which developed during the Commonwealth period. This freedom allowed for a diversity of ideas and creativity. The Puritans, while not primarily focused on freedom of religion, contributed to the rule of law, which enabled individuals to pursue their ideas without needing permission from the state. This environment fostered innovation and entrepreneurship, as people could start businesses and engage in trade without bureaucratic obstacles. Additionally, property ownership, rooted in the Magna Carta, ensured that individuals could not have their property unjustly taken by the king.

Similar conditions that fostered creativity and economic growth were present in Florence during the Renaissance, where good governance and property rights allowed for a flourishing of ideas. Holland also experienced similar developments before England, leading to significant wealth. The Industrial Revolution in Britain eventually led to the export of technology and ideas to other European countries, such as Germany and Switzerland, where they were adopted and improved upon.

In Britain, a synthesis of Hebraism and Hellenism laid the foundation for a democratic, social, and legal environment that would protect the second advent of Christ. This environment was not only meant to exist in Britain but did so, leading to immense wealth and the expansion of trade, which contributed to the British Empire. By the 1920s, the British Empire encompassed about a quarter of the world's population, and many of its former colonies, like India, remain liberal democracies today. I intended to discuss France and the Enlightenment, but I haven't enough time. We will return to this topic next week, examining French history, the development of the French church, and the consequences of the Enlightenment, as well as the evolution of the German church and philosophy in the 19th century. We will also explore Russia's religious and intellectual development, starting with Peter the Great and how these factors contributed to the rise of communism.